Syllabus Topic
National Studies
Option F: Russia and the Soviet Union 1917-1941
Survey
- Bolshevik consolidation of power, including:
- an overview of Bolshevik ideology, the October coup 1917 and early Soviet government (ACHMH136)
- the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Civil War and the introduction of the New Economic Policy (ACHMH136, ACHMH138)
Between 1917 and 1941, Russia underwent a dramatic transformation from the collapse of the Romanov dynasty to the emergence of a centralised socialist state under Joseph Stalin. This period encompassed revolution, civil war, economic experimentation, and authoritarian consolidation, laying the foundations of the Soviet Union as both a global ideological force and a heavily industrialised power.
Revolutions and Civil War (1917–1921)
The February Revolution of 1917 forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, ending centuries of autocratic rule. Later that year, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution. The new regime withdrew from World War I through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk but faced internal opposition in the Russian Civil War (1918–1921). Victory in the civil war allowed the Bolsheviks to consolidate power, establishing a one-party state.
The New Economic Policy (1921–1928)
To stabilise the postwar economy, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), which reintroduced limited private trade and small-scale enterprise while keeping major industries under state control. This policy restored agricultural and industrial output after the devastation of war communism, but also created tensions between ideological purity and practical needs.
Stalin’s Rise and Collectivisation (1928–1934)
By the late 1920s, Joseph Stalin had overcame rivals such as Leon Trotsky and Nikolai Bukharin to secure his leadership of the Communist Party. In 1928, he abandoned Lenin’s NEP and introduced forced collectivisation of agriculture. Millions of peasants were compelled to join collective farms, with the aim of increasing grain procurement to fund industrialisation. Widespread resistance led to violent crackdowns, the destruction of livestock, and devastating famines—most notably the Holodomor in Ukraine (1932–33)—which claimed millions of lives.
Industrialisation and the Five-Year Plans (1928–1941)
Stalin’s economic vision was driven by successive Five-Year Plans, beginning in 1928. These focused on expanding heavy industry, energy, and military capacity, with dramatic increases in coal, steel, and machinery production. By the late 1930s, the Soviet Union had significantly narrowed the gap with Western industrial powers and laid the foundations for wartime mobilisation. However, the over-focus on targets created harsh working conditions, shortages of consumer goods, and widespread inefficiency.
Political Repression and the Great Terror (1934–1939)
To eliminate potential opponents, Stalin initiated widespread purges, culminating in the Great Terror. From 1936 to 1938, Communist Party officials, military leaders, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens were arrested, imprisoned, or executed on charges of disloyalty. Show trials, forced confessions, and mass deportations to gulags reinforced Stalin’s totalitarian control.
The Road to War (1939–1941)
In 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany, a non-aggression agreement that secretly divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. The Soviet Union subsequently occupied eastern Poland, the Baltic states, and parts of Romania, expanding its territorial reach. However, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa) ended the pact and plunged the Soviet Union into the Second World War.
Conclusion
Between 1928 and 1941, the Soviet Union was transformed into a highly centralised, industrialised state under Stalin’s leadership. The achievements of rapid economic modernisation came alongside immense human tragedy, marked by famine, repression, and terror. By 1941, the Soviet Union was both a formidable industrial power and a society scarred by authoritarianism—poised to play a decisive role in the global conflict that followed.
SOURCES:
Imperial War Museums: February Revolution
Britannica: Bolsheviks
Alpha History: New Economic Policy
Britannica: Collectivisation
Holodomor Research and Education Consortium: Holodomor
History Hit: Five-Year Plans
History.com: Great Terror
The Guardian: Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
Image Sourced from https://www.pexels.com/vi-vn/anh/nha-th-st-basil-3629813/
.jpg)
